Successful use of insecticides for WFT control requires attention to the issues of pesticide choice, coverage, phytotoxicity, and resistance. 1995. In African violets, thrips feeding ruptures pollen sacs, spreading loose pollen over flowers. Identification tip: Western flower thrips can be white, yellow, orange, brown, or black. 1997. In Parker, B. L., M. Skinner, and T. Lewis (eds.) Wijkamp, I., J. van Lent, R. Kormelink, R. Goldbach and D. Peters. Significant pest species include: Western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) Insect screening, pp. BCPC, United Kingdom. 1992. Parasitic wasps. However, trials conducted in Texas with Botanigard® and Naturalis®-O on western flower thrips infesting potted chrysanthemums and African violets failed to detect efficacy for either product (Thompson et al. Influence of resource quality on the reproductive fitness of flower thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). In North American greenhouse plants, INSV is the predominant of the two viruses, but in Europe, TSWV is the common form. Similarly, the fungal pathogen Aschersonia aleyrodis is compatible with the parasitoid Encarsia formosa (used for whitefly control) because it does not infect whiteflies that have been parasitized for more than three days (Fransen and van Lenteren 1994). Some plants develop a local dead or discolored spot where thrips eggs have been inserted into plant tissue. (1996) found that O. laevigatus failed to control WFT in pepper during the winter, but that better results appeared to occur with O. albidipennis (Reuter). 19: 153-156. Loomans, A. J. M. and J. C. van Lenteren. Chyzik, R., I. Glazer, and M. Klein. Diapause induction in the thrips predator. The "active ingredients" in fungal preparations are spores, also called conidia. Ramakers, P. M. J. and S. J. P. Voet. Times need for development of WFT life stages have been measured on several crop species, including cucumber (Gaum et al. These studies show the potential for controlling WFT in the soil, but other plant management practices may affect the results. Laboratory test method to evaluate the effect of 31 pesticides on the predatory bug, van de Wetering, F., R. Goldbach and D. Peters. 1996). 1995. 1993. 1994. Western flower thrips (WFT) is distinguished from other Frankliniella species by the shape of antennal segment III, the size of the pronotal anteroangular setae, the position of the ocelli and interocellar setae, and the complete comb of posteromarginal setae on tergum VIII. Male WFT transmit TSWV much more efficiently than females (van de Wetering et al. Rose petals may develop dark streaks and spots from feeding injury that occurred before the buds opened, or the flower buds may deform and fail to open. If you have a major infestation of thrips, your plants might be stunted with damaged flowers and fruit. In such cases, suppressing flowering, or hand picking and disposing of flowers as they develop, can make control of WFT populations easier. All four of these species were able to complete their development on a diet of WFT larvae. In Israel, Rubin et al. 1995. In the 1970s and early 1980s, this species spread throughout North America (Beshear 1983). 2014 Oct 1;107(5):1728-35. doi: 10.1603/EC14027. To delay development of resistance, a standard recommendation is to use long-term rotations. Eulophid wasps in the genera Ceranisus, Thripobius, Goetheana, Entedonastichus, and Pediobius are solitary internal parasitoids of thrips larvae. Sabelis, M.W. Fungicides are the most inhibitory, and need to be used with caution in any spray program in which beneficial fungi are used. 276. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 83: 73-80. Some older insecticides are inhibitory, and if used should be applied separately. Acta Horticulturae 431: 90-98. Amblyseius cucumeris. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 81: 64-70. Rodriguez-Reina, J. M., F. Ferragut, A. Carnero and M. A. Peña. should be consulted when installing insect screens in mechanically vented greenhouses (Robb and Parrella 1995). Many species of phytoseiid mites have been recorded as eating some stages of WFT (Sabelis and van Rijn 1997). However, this species attacks only the greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis [Bouché]) and does not attack the more important western flower thrips (Loomans and van Lenteren 1995). Some species of thrips also transmit plant diseases. 1991. 1995), cucumber (Soria and Mollema 1992), sweet pepper (Fery and Schalk 1991), and chrysanthemum (de Jager and Butot 1992, de Jager et al. Collection and first evaluation of hymenopterous parasites of thrips as biological control agents of. Use of supplemental lighting to extend daylength. Effect of temperature on development and oviposition of western flower thrips, de Klerk, M. L. and P. M. J. Ramakers. Table 1. Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) originated in western North America and has since become a major pest of vegetables, fruit and ornamental crops across the US and around the world.F. Growers should also try to avoid buying thrips-infested plants and introducing them into their greenhouses. Journal of Economic Entomology 91: 671-677. The time spent counting insects on sticky traps can be reduced, with yellow traps at least, by counting only the insects on a one inch wide (2.3 cm) strip, rather than the whole trap surface (Heinz et al. Flower odors are highly attractive to WFT, so that, in blooming crops, trap catches decline because of competition between real flowers and traps. In general, the higher the storage temperature, the more rapid the rate of inactivation. This service is more advanced with JavaScript available, Thrips Biology and Management 1997. Specifically, van den Meriacker (1994) found that for O. insidiosus the critical photoperiod was between 11 and 12 hours, and for O. majusculus it was between 14 and 16 hours. Otherwise, thrips will overwinter in the greenhouse and this may result in a large population at the beginning of the next growing season. 1998. Used mainly for whitefly control, Needs long days (<11 hrs) to reproduce. Exclusion of WFT is not, however, simply a matter of placing a fine screen over vents and air intakes. Helyer, N. L. and P. J. Brobyn. Check indicator plants for the characteristic dark-ringed lesions that develop around thrips feeding scars if toposviruses are present. M. Daughtrey, Department of Plant Pathology, Cornell University, Long Island Horticultural Research Laboratory, Riverhead, NY, 11901. At that time, however, control in cucumber was insufficient and this predator could not be recommended for commercial use in cucumber (Ravensberg and Altena 1987). Insecticide applications should be repeated on a five day schedule for at least three applications. T. Smith, Massachusetts Extension, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, 01003. 1995). 1994. Robb., and J. P. Newman. Brownbridge, M., A. Adamowicz, M. Skinner and B.L. Brownbridge, M., R. A. Humber, B. L. Parker, and M. Skinner. Interactions with hymenopterous parasitoids and parasitic nematodes, pp. The relative suitabilities of cucumbers, tomatoes, and sweet peppers for foraging of O. insidiosus have been compared and cucumber found to be somewhat less suitable (Ferguson and Schmidt 1996). Knowing which species of thrips you have is important because some thrips do not vector the plant diseases that are the source of much of the damage caused by WFT. Ullman, D.E., J.L. New records of thrips in Georgia. Growers should try to reduce the number of thrips present in greenhouses at the end of the growing season. Use of fungal pathogens for insect control in greenhouses, pp. German, T. L., D. E. Ullman, and J. W. Moyer. CAB International, United Kingdom. In contrast, on plants which are not producing pollen, or on short cycle crops in which time for population increase is lacking, mites may fail to provide biological control of pests. Tests with Heterorhabditis bacteriophora strain HP88 have shown 36 to 49% mortality (Chyzik et al. INSV does not become systemic in these petunia cultivars; therefore, infected plants that might result from their use as indicator plants will not become a virus reservoir within the greenhouse. 1964. Research on tropical species of thrips and their parasitoids may be desirable, as these parasitoids may have relatively faster rates of development. Effects of resistance in cucumber upon life-history components of. 1994). Results have varied, with 4 to 77% mortality in various tests (Tomalek 1991, 1994; Helyer et al. In addition, stable resistance to TSWV has been difficult to obtain (Best 1968). For example, thresholds for thrips captures on the blue trap Rebell blu® have been developed in Switzerland for nine ornamental species. Thresholds Western Flower Thrips There are no thresholds established for Ontario. Some species of the trichogrammatid genus Megaphragma attack thrips in the same genus as WFT. Gerin, C., Th Hance and G. van Impe, 1994. 1995. van Heest and J.J. Fransen, 1995b. Recent research has shown that some native species of thrips can outcompete invasive western flower thrips and thus act to reduce the development of western flower thrips populations (Paini et al., 2008; Demirozer et al., 2012). Damaged plant cells collapse, resulting in deformed plant growth, flower deformation, or silvered patches and flecking on expanded leaves. They are not effective against all pests or all developmental stages and will be best used as part of preventative, integrated crop management program. Of these genera, only Ceranisus and Goetheana contain species known to attack thrips related to WFT at the genus or subfamily level. 1995. Coll, M. and R. L. Ridgeway. Effect of storage temperature and formulation on viability and infectivity of. 1996). In 1990, TSWV-I became formalized as INSV (Law and Moyer 1990). In Lewis, T. Use of non-diapausing strains of A. cucumeris, while relatively successful on sweet pepper, has continued to be less successful on cucumber (van Houten 1996), presumably because cucumber plants provide less pollen for mites (Ramakers 1995). Effects of various potential trap shapes, sizes and background colors have been studied (Vernon and Gillespie 1995). 1996. van Rijn, 1997. Amblyseius hibisci and A. degenerans were considered by the authors to be good candidates for WFT control under conditions of short day length and low humidities. Charnley, A.K., B. Cobb and J.M. Direct damage. However, Gill (1994) found that releases of A. cucumeris in crops of ornamental bedding plants (via the sachet release system) reduced the number of pesticide applications needed for WFT control from 5 to 0.4. Insecticide resistance in European and African strains of western flower thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) tested in a new residue-on-glass test. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 74: 225-234. van Houten, Y. M., P. van Stratum, J. Bruin, and A. Veerman. A drop in temperature of just 5-9°F (3-5°C) increased the time of death by one day, which could be critical in heavily infested greenhouses. Guidelines of the National Greenhouse Manufacturers Assoc. J Econ Entomol. Identification. Interactions with other controls must be understood if fungi are to be integrated into IPM programs. Screening will only be helpful if the source of an infestation is from thrips migrating in from the outside and not from infected plant material within the greenhouse. Such plant tapping can be used to determine if thrips are present, and to gain a rough estimate of their numbers. de Kogel, W.J., M van der Hoek, C. Mollema, 1997. A minimum of 15-30 minutes of feeding is required for transmission to healthy plants (Sakimura 1962ab). TSWV is a tospovirus spread by western flower thrips, onion thrips ( see Fact Sheet no. Releases of parasitoids (. Most fungicides had no toxic effects. Immaraju et al. 276. Nymphs resemble adults in shape and colouring. TSWV has a very wide host range, and the only thrips that transmits the virus in a persistent way. Transmission of tomato spotted wilt virus in Ontario greenhouses by the western flower thrips. Thrips parasitoids are found in three families (Eulophidae, Trichogrammatidae, Mymaridae) and several genera. Tomato spotted wilt virus, pp. Amblyseius barkeri. Thrips as Crop Pests. If thrips feed on the surface of expanded leaves or petals, damage appears as small scars or silvered patches. 1998. Relationship of. Howardula aptini (Sharga 1932) parasite in blueberry thrips in New Brunswick. 1992. In addition, invasion by WFT (and its replacement of onion thrips as the pest of greatest concern) redirected the need for control to this new thrips species, whose biology differs from that of onion thrips. & A.K. IOBC Bull. They have thin bodies and vary in color from near black to Parasitoids attacking thrips do not show much potential for the control of WFT. Alternatively, thrips may be monitored with sticky traps or "the tapping method." Also, small populations are easier to control than large ones. In chrysanthemum, Hessein and Parrella (1990) found that releases of A. cucumeris and A. barkeri were not able to suppress WFT below a level of 2-7 per leaf, a number too high for this crop. Western flower thrips is a vector of many plant diseases, the most important of which for greenhouse producers are two plant viruses in the genus Tospovirus: impatiens necrotic spot virus (INSV) and tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) (German et al. Therefore even highly effective measures taken against this part of the population, unless repeated frequently, will fail to control the population. German. Some thrips damage thresholds have been published. 1996. This "contact activity" makes them unique among insect pathogens, and they have a demonstrated capability to infect and suppress piercing-sucking insects. Different populations of the same species of Orius collected in geographic regions differing in latitude can also be expected to differ in their critical day length diapause responses. Biological control of western flower thrips with, Soria, C. and C. Mollema. Adults are the most susceptible stage; however, infected adults continue to lay eggs for a few days. Also, few pesticides are currently labeled for use in soil in greenhouses, further restricting this option. Vernon, R. S. and D. R. Gillespie. Molting is an important factor in insect resistance to infection, especially in an insect like WFT in which the time between molts is short. Several nematodes in the genus Steinernema have been tested to assess their ability to kill WFT stages in soil. Proper identification. Of these various parasitoids, as potential biological control agents for WFT, most attention has been directed toward eulophids in the genus Ceranisus, principally C. menes (Walker) and C. americensis (Girault) (Loomans et al. 1995a. 355-397. 1994. 1988. Vectoring of plant diseases. Fungal pathogen provides control of western flower thrips in greenhouse flowers. This allows lower dose rates to be used and applications to be made less often. High-volume spray applications that produce a fine mist with good leaf wetting (but not to run-off) give better levels of control than low volume electrostatic sprays (Brownbridge et al. (However, on two ornamental crops, dahlias and chrysanthemums, TSWV is the more important virus). Castañé, C. and F. G. Zalom. Spore viability of fungal biopesticides is not reduced by most spray adjuvants, but growers should contact the biopesticide’s manufacturer to obtain an updated list of compatible adjuvants and recommendations for their use. Not all WFT developmental stages are equally susceptible to fungal infection. Multiplication of tomato spotted wilt virus in its insect vector. Effectiveness of. 1997 British Crop Protection Council Symposium (No. Rubin, A., O. Ucko, N. Orr, and R. Offenbach. 1997). CAB International, Wallingford, United Kingdom. Daughtrey, M. L. 1996. Riverside, CA 92521, 900 University Ave. Thrips feed by using their mouthparts to pierce plant cells and suck out their contents. Rather than rely on threshold values developed at some other site, under conditions that are likely to differ from one’s own, growers may do better by using thrips counts from their own monitoring efforts in past crops. Adults ate more WFT larvae than did immature bugs. Insect-killing fungi possess many features that make them ideal for use in IPM and have several distinct advantages over other biological control agents: (1) their activity is unaffected by factors such as day length that can limit the activity of some thrips predators such as Orius spp. They are usually found in flowers. However, a cheap rearing method based on use of flowering castor beans (Ricinus communis) has been developed (Ramakers and Voet 1995). Fransen, J. J. and J. Tolsma. The fungi discussed here are compatible with the thrips predators Orius insidiosus and Amblyseius cucumeris, and honeybees (Brownbridge, pers. Mound, L. A. and G. Kibby. In a subsequent comparison of A. cucumeris and A. limonicus in a cucumber greenhouse in Holland, A. limonicus was able to suppress WFT populations, whereas A. cucumeris was not (van Houten 1996). Fungal biopesticides must be held under appropriate conditions at all times - in transit and in storage on the farm. Riudavets (1995) provides detailed information from the literature on these two important species. 33-40. Higgins, C.J. 1995), French bean (Gerin et al. The critical photoperiod for diapause induction is 12.5 hours day light, given a day temperature of 72°F (22°C) and night temperature of 63°F (17°C). Re-treatment of an infested crop is, therefore, usually necessary to ensure good control. A. Bethke, and E. A. Shearin. Sex ratio patterns and population dynamics of western flower thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Montserrat, M., C. Castañé & S. Santamaria. If present, thrips will be dislodged and are visible on white paper. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 65: 414-418. Annual Review of Phytopathology 30: 315-348. 1995. Thrips Biology and Management. Thrips as Crop Pests. Western flower thrips is primarily a pest of herbaceous plants; but high populations can damage flowers on woody plants, such as roses. Brownbridge, M. and A. Adamowicz. This species of thrips is native to the Southwestern United States [1] but has spread to other continents, including Europe, Australia (where it was identified in May 1993 [1] ), and South America via transport of infested plant material. Trends in Microbiology 4: 197-204. Identification and evaluation of native predators of. CAB International, United Kingdom. 1995b, Loomans and van Lenteren 1996). 1998. In H.F. Evans [ed.]. Tospoviruses can also be detected in greenhouse crops by using indicator plants such as fava bean (any dwarf variety) or petunia (Allen and Matteoni 1991). Biological control of WFT, for example, works better on sweet pepper than on many other crops because populations of predatory mites build up by feeding on the abundant pollen supply on this plant. Not affiliated Entomophthoralean fungi have also been isolated from WFT, and observed causing epizootics on greenhouse cucumbers (Montserrat et al. Verticillium lecanii successfully infected WFT pupae in soil, but the fungus persisted poorly in non-sterile potting media (Hirte et al. Efforts have also been made to develop optimal conditions for mass production of Orius species (Blümel 1996), including the possible use of artificial substrates for oviposition (Castañé and Zalom 1994). 28 Aug-2 Sept 1994, Montpelier, France. Some fairly uncommon thrips species can be identified by using a handlens and noting differences in color, shape, size, and other characters, but is not possible to Pesticide resistance. Short term storage (under two hours) at higher temperatures is unlikely to have a significant effect, but if fungi are held under warm conditions for extended periods, the spores are inactivated and the rate of germination in the survivors declines (Brownbridge 1996). 1996a. CAB International, United Kingdom. Thrips are tiny insects; adults are 1-2 mm in length, with narrow bodies and fringed wings. Weeds such as Galinsoga sp. On peppers, releases totaling 1-2 predators per plant resulted in good thrips control over several months, providing initial thrips numbers were low. You can control thrips biologically. Use a given effective insecticide for several generations of WFT (3-4 weeks), then rotate to another insecticide with a different mode of action (different chemical class) for several WFT generations. However, thresholds are very sensitive to the particular conditions at hand, including the crop, variety, local market standards, and, very importantly, whether or not INSV or TSWV is present at the site. 1995. Detection of tomato spotted wilt virus in individual thrips by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. van Dijken, R. Goldbach and D. Peters, 1996b. Bautista, R. C., R. F. L. Mau, J. J. Cho, and D. M. Custer. Infects larval stages and adult stage is sterilized. Predatory mites help control thrips on floriculture crops. Microbial Insecticides: Novelty or Necessity? R. G. Van Driesche, Department of Entomology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, 01003. Ravensberg and M. Malais. van de Veire, G. Smagghe and D. Degheele. 1996. Further trials, especially of non-diapausing species such as O. albidipennis, might be warranted. 1995; Daughtrey 1996; Daughtrey et al. Growth and survivability of the entomopathogenic fungus. 1991. In Lewis, T. In order to utilize fungi efficiently, though, it is important to understand how they work, how they may best be applied, and places where they can and cannot be used. Screening of all openings is usually easier to control the population increases 8.5 with! Woody plants, flowers, fruits, and J. C. van Lenteren, Department Microbiology...: variable, dark to light brown/grey, but the fungus then multiplies the! Increasing trap efficiency Murai, 1997 for examples of thrips with predatory mite releases began in and. And S. J. P. Newman or not a control measure is needed and some is.! With onion or western flower thrips: identification, biology, and J. P. N. F. van Heest and! Law and Moyer 1990 ) life cycle than the earlier diapausing strain ( van Schaaf... 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